Shape

Rugby Ball

• More rounded and wider.
• Nearly symmetrical from end to end.
• Easier to catch and pass with two hands.

American Football

• Longer and more pointed at both ends.
• Narrower in the middle.
• Designed for long spiral throws.

Size

Why the Difference?

Rugby

• Players frequently pass laterally and handle the ball in traffic.
• The rounder shape makes catching and carrying easier.
• Kicking is common, and the unpredictable bounce is part of the game.

American Football

• Forward passing is a major part of the sport.
• The pointed shape helps quarterbacks throw tight spirals over long distances.
• Better aerodynamics for passing.

Bounce

A rugby ball bounces very unpredictably because of its rounded oval shape.

An American football also bounces oddly, but its pointed ends often cause it to skip or ricochet in different directions.

Historical Connection

The American football evolved from rugby-style balls in the late 1800s. Early footballs were almost identical to rugby balls. As forward passing became important, the ball gradually became narrower and more pointed to improve throwing.

So if you put them side by side:

• Rugby ball = fatter, rounder, built for carrying and short passes.
• American football = slimmer, pointier, built for throwing spirals.

1. Four-Seam Fastball

The basic and usually fastest pitch.

Grip:

• Index and middle fingers across the horseshoe seams.
• Thumb underneath the ball.
• Ball held with slight space from the palm.

Movement:

• Straight with slight rise illusion.
• Highest velocity.

2. Two-Seam Fastball (Sinker Variant)

Designed for arm-side movement.

Grip:

• Fingers run along the narrow seams.
• Slight finger pressure toward the inside.

Movement:

• Tails toward the pitcher’s arm side.
• Often sinks downward.

3. Curveball

A classic breaking pitch.

Grip:

• Middle finger on or near a seam.
• Thumb underneath.
• Wrist snaps downward at release.

Movement:

• Sharp downward break.
• Can resemble a “12-to-6” drop.

4. Slider

Harder and later-breaking than a curveball.

5

Grip:

• Similar to a fastball but slightly off-center.
• Middle finger applies most pressure.

Movement:

• Late glove-side break.
• Faster than a curveball.

5. Changeup

Looks like a fastball but arrives slower.

Grip:

• Circle formed with thumb and index finger.
• Ball sits deeper in the hand.

Movement:

• 8–15 mph slower than a fastball.
• Often fades and sinks.

6. Cutter (Cut Fastball)

A fastball that moves slightly away from the pitcher’s arm side.

Grip:

• Similar to a four-seam fastball.
• Fingers shifted slightly off-center.

Movement:

• Small, late break.
• Popularized by Mariano Rivera.

7. Splitter (Split-Finger Fastball)

Grip:

• Index and middle fingers spread wide apart.
• Ball sits deep between the fingers.

Movement:

• Drops suddenly near the plate.
• Looks like a fastball initially.

8. Knuckleball

One of the rarest pitches.

Grip:

• Fingernails or knuckles pressed into the ball.
• Minimal spin at release.

Movement:

• Floats unpredictably.
• Can dart in multiple directions due to air currents.

Average Heights from Archaeology

Studies of skeletal remains from Scandinavian Viking Age burial sites (c. 800–1100 AD) show:

• Men: about 5 ft 7 in (170 cm) on average
• Women: about 5 ft 2 in (158 cm)

This means Viking men were only slightly taller than many other Europeans of the early medieval period.

So Vikings may have seemed tall, but the difference was usually only a couple of inches.

Why Raiders Might Have Seemed Tall

Several factors could make Viking raiders appear larger than they actually were:

1. Selection of Stronger Men
Raiding crews were usually young, healthy, physically capable men, not the entire population. That alone raises the average size.

2. Better Diet
Scandinavian diets often included:

• fish
• meat
• dairy
• barley and rye

Higher protein intake can contribute to slightly greater height.

3. Intimidation in Battle
Raiders often wore:

• helmets
• chainmail
• shields
• axes or swords

With gear and aggressive tactics, they could look much larger and more intimidating.

4. Fearful Descriptions by Victims
Monks and chroniclers who wrote about raids often described Vikings as huge, terrifying warriors, which likely exaggerated their physical size.

Tall Vikings Did Exist

Just like today, there was variation.

Some skeletons from Viking burials measure over 6 ft (183 cm) tall, which would have been very tall in the medieval world. Those individuals may have helped reinforce the reputation.

1. Personal Retainers

The most important household members were other samurai retainers sworn to serve the lord.

Example role:

• Kashin

Responsibilities:

• military service in battle

• guarding the residence

• acting as messengers

• representing the lord in official matters

In large domains, these retainers formed the military and administrative backbone of the household.

2. Sword Bearer / Weapon Attendant

Many samurai had an attendant responsible for weapons.

Example:

• Koshō

Duties included:

• carrying swords or armor

• preparing equipment

• assisting during travel

• learning samurai etiquette and martial culture

This role was often filled by young samurai in training.

3. Household Steward / Administrator

Larger samurai households required financial and logistical management.

Example role:

• Karō

Responsibilities:

• managing finances and rice stipends

• supervising retainers

• coordinating estate operations

• advising the lord on policy

In major domains, this person functioned almost like a prime minister.

4. Domestic Servants

Daily life required practical labor.

Typical staff included:

• cooks

• cleaners

• laundry workers

• gate attendants

• stable workers

These servants were often commoners, not samurai.

5. Armor and Equipment Caretakers

Armor and weapons required upkeep.

While specialists like sword polishers lived outside the household, some estates had attendants who:

• maintained armor

• stored weapons

• prepared gear before travel or battle

These workers ensured equipment was ready when needed.

6. Tutors and Educators

Samurai families valued education.

Households often hired instructors in:

• Confucianism

• literature

• calligraphy

• martial arts

These teachers trained both sons and young retainers.

Household Size by Rank

Low-ranking samurai

• family members

• 1–3 servants

Mid-ranking samurai

• several retainers

• servants

• pages

Daimyō (feudal lord)

• dozens to hundreds of retainers

• full administrative staff

• guards and attendants

Example:

• The court of Tokugawa Ieyasu included thousands of retainers across his domains.

A dwarf planet is a celestial body that orbits the Sun and is massive enough for its gravity to make it nearly round, but unlike a full planet it has not cleared other objects from its orbital path. The classification was defined in 2006 by the International Astronomical Union when astronomers updated the definition of a planet. Known dwarf planets in our solar system include Pluto, Ceres, Haumea, Makemake, and Eris. Most dwarf planets are found far beyond the orbit of Neptune in a region called the Kuiper Belt, which contains many icy bodies left over from the formation of the solar system. Scientists believe that many more dwarf planets likely exist, making them an important key to understanding the early history and structure of our planetary system.

Official Dwarf Planets (Recognized by the International Astronomical Union)

Ceres
Location: Asteroid Belt
Unique because it lies inside the inner solar system.

Haumea
Football-shaped due to extremely fast rotation.
Has a ring and two moons.

Pluto
Located in the Kuiper Belt
Reclassified from planet to dwarf planet in 2006.

Makemake
One of the brightest objects in the Kuiper Belt.
Discovered in 2005.

Eris
Slightly more massive than Pluto.
Its discovery helped trigger the redefinition of “planet.”

Why Pluto Isn’t a Full Planet

The IAU defines a planet as an object that:

Orbits the Sun
Is round due to gravity
Cleared its orbital neighborhood

Pluto meets the first two criteria but has not cleared nearby objects in its orbit, which is why it’s classified as a dwarf planet.

Interesting Fact

Astronomers think there could be dozens to hundreds of dwarf planets in the Kuiper Belt and beyond that haven’t been officially confirmed yet

Medieval helmets typically included interior padding or a padded cap worn underneath to cushion the wearer from the hard metal shell. Knights commonly wore a quilted arming cap made of linen, wool, or layered cloth, which absorbed sweat, reduced friction, and helped the helmet fit securely. In some later helmet designs, especially during the 14th and 15th centuries, padding or a leather suspension liner was attached inside the helmet itself to create space between the metal and the skull. This cushioning was essential because it helped absorb shock from blows, reduce the risk of concussion, and distribute impact forces across the head. Without such padding, even minor strikes against the metal helm could transfer significant force directly to the wearer’s head, making interior cushioning a critical component of medieval protective armor.

The speed of Earth’s rotation varies depending on where you are on the planet:

At the Equator:
The Earth rotates at its fastest speed at the equator. The rotational speed is approximately 1,674 kilometers per hour (1,040 miles per hour).This is calculated by dividing the Earth’s circumference at the equator (~40,075 kilometers or ~24,901 miles) by the time it takes to complete one full rotation (24 hours).

Key points about Earth’s rotation speed:

• Measured at the equator: The fastest rotation speed is measured at the Earth’s equator.
• Decreases with latitude: As you move away from the equator towards the poles, the rotation speed decreases.
• One rotation per day: The Earth completes one full rotation on its axis every 24 hours.

At its height, the Mongol Empire (which expanded after Genghis Khan’s death) covered parts of modern-day 30 countries or more, including:

1. China
2. Mongolia
3. Russia
4. Kazakhstan
5. Uzbekistan
6. Turkmenistan
7. Kyrgyzstan
8. Tajikistan
9. Afghanistan
10. Iran
11. Iraq
12. Turkey
13. Azerbaijan
14. Armenia
15. Georgia
16. Ukraine
17. Belarus
18. Moldova
19. Lithuania
20. Poland
21. Hungary
22. Romania
23. Bulgaria
24. South Korea
25. North Korea
26. India (partial regions in the north)
27. Pakistan
28. Myanmar (Burma)
29. Vietnam
30. Laos

The Mongol Empire was the largest contiguous land empire in history, stretching from the Pacific Ocean in the east to the edges of Europe in the west, and from Siberia in the north to the Persian Gulf and the Himalayas in the south. Genghis Khan’s campaigns were focused on subjugating key regions, which later expanded further under his successors.

1. Dolphins (particularly Bottlenose Dolphins)

Dolphins are often considered one of the smartest animals due to their complex communication skills, social structures, problem-solving abilities, and ability to learn new tasks. They exhibit self-awareness, as shown by their ability to recognize themselves in a mirror, a trait seen in very few species.

2. Great Apes (especially Chimpanzees and Orangutans)

Chimpanzees, orangutans, and other great apes are known for their advanced cognitive skills. They can use tools, solve problems, communicate with each other, and even learn sign language. Some chimpanzees have demonstrated the ability to use rudimentary symbols to communicate with humans.

3. Crows and Ravens

Crows, ravens, and other corvids are incredibly intelligent. They can create and use tools, plan for the future, recognize themselves in mirrors, and even engage in complex problem-solving. Some studies show that crows can use tools in ways that rival some primates.

4. Elephants

Elephants are known for their empathy, long-term memory, and problem-solving abilities. They have a strong sense of self-awareness and can recognize themselves in mirrors. Elephants also exhibit complex social behaviors, such as mourning their dead and forming close family bonds.

5. Octopuses

Octopuses are incredibly intelligent in the animal kingdom, with problem-solving abilities that are almost unmatched. They can escape from enclosures, use tools, and demonstrate learning through observation. Their intelligence is especially notable because their brain structure is vastly different from vertebrates.

6. Whales (especially Orcas)

Orcas (killer whales) are highly social and intelligent creatures. They have complex communication systems and social structures. They also demonstrate cultural behaviors, such as passing down hunting techniques from one generation to the next.

While there is no definitive answer, dolphins, great apes, and crows are often considered among the top contenders for the title of the world’s smartest animals due to their diverse range of cognitive abilities.